The Concept of Omoiyari (Altruistic Sensitivity) in Japanese Relational Communication

Intercultural conference Studies XV 1 2006 Hara The Concept of Omoiyari (Altruistic Sensitivity) in Nipp unrivalledse Relational parley Kazuya Hara, Meikai University, japan Abstract It is essential to look for Nipp geniusse plans in Japanese languages as intellectual tools for future studies in Asia. In raise to develop Asian theories of parley, therefore, Asian intercourse scholars ought to soak up in this important task.This paper presents much(prenominal) an attempt by conceptualizing the concept of omoiyari for a Japanese theory of relative conversation. In tender mental science, the Japanese concept of omoiyari has been examined in terms of altruism, sympathy, empathy, and prosocial doings, and a variety of cognitive models of prosocial bearing arousal have been proposed. In the dramatics of communication studies, however, the concept of omoiyari has non attracted much scholarly attention, although aspects of harmonius Japanese communication be well documen ted.By synthesizing the germane(predicate) literary works on omoiyari across disciplines, then, this paper formulates a explanation of omoiyari for Japanese communication research, lays out its basic givens, and characterizes it in light of quaternary major(ip) semantic argonas of omoiyari (1) prayer, (2) hike, (3) help, and (4) support. Introduction Cast your bread upon the waters and it result show to you. a rangeing reflecting omoiyari When Japanese populate feel some others kindness toward them and see some 1s warm-he tricked legal opinions, thoughts, and styles, they appreciate that individuals omoiyari.The primary stringenting of omoiyari is an individualistics sensitivity to imagine a nonhers feelings and personal affairs, including his or her circumstances (Shinmura, 1991, p. 387, translated by Hara). Omoiyari has attracted non-Japanese scholars attention as cardinal of the most important ideas in Japanese cultural encourage and communication (e. g. , Le bra, 1976 Travis, 1998 Wierzbicka, 1997). The volume omoiyari is often seen on signs bearing a educate motto and at police stations. In m either surveys of public opinion, Japanese people have listed omoiyari as a key concept on which they stick superior nourish.Although omoiyari - base behavior and activity atomic number 18 seen across cultures, Japanese people argon the singles who put the highest value on omoiyari all over the world (Kikuchi, 1988 Akanuma, 2004). This humankinde omoiyari concept has been emphasized in moral study at schools in Japan as the guiding principle to transcend with others (Ito, 1998a 1998b). In educational mental science in Japan, the magnificence of omoiyari has been emphasized with its outgrowthal emplacements of children (e. g. , Kikuchi, 1988).Recent inhumane crimes such(prenominal)(prenominal) as ill-treatment bullying or indiscriminate murder on the street are ca employ by the lack of omoiyari, and the importance of omoiyari has d avow the stairsgone a reevaluation in terms of education in the schools (Kanno, 1988). psychological aspects of omoiyari such as empathy and sympathy have been studied, 24 Intercultural Communication Studies XV 1 2006 Hara and its behavior has been studied as prosocial behavior, altruistic behavior, and parcel behavior in social psychology (e. . , Harada, 1991 Kikuchi, 1998 Matsui, 1991). Although the term omoiyari behavior is non broadly speaking subroutined as a technical term in social psychology (Matsui, 1991), the titles of several studies on these concepts are comprehensively translated into Japanese using the word omoiyari (e. g. , Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989 Hoffman, 2001 Jones, 1993). Additionally, cultural psychologists Uchida and Kitayama (2001) developed a measurement scale of omoiyari from the view saddle of sympathy.In the field of communication studies, although aspects of harmonious communication have been well-researched, just a fewer studies have focused on omo iyari as an important factor of Japanese harmonious communication. For framework, Donahue (1998) beseechs that omoiyari is a psychological factor in Japanese corroboratory communication. In health communication, Kakai (2002) argues that Japanese prefer ambiguity or not disclosing of cancer to their family members. Behind such indirect communication and style is the psychological and cultural background of omoiyari.These studies refer to the study on Japanese empathy by anthropologist Lebra (1976) and her definition and observation of omoiyari. Although previous studies have maked to pointing out the importance of omoiyari in Japanese mental culture and behavioral culture, there are terzetto points to be further considered. First, many psychological studies found on occidental concepts have not proposed clear conceptual definitions of omoiyari, so there is no consensus on its definition.Second, studies on omoiyari in other fields have only argued one aspect of omoiyari with it s case contexts we cleverness be able to search multi-aspects of omoiyari, taking various communication contexts and levels into consideration. Third, prohibit aspects of omoiyari have not been referred to adequately in previous studies on omoiyari. For example, there are cases when omoiyari toward others might not be appreciated or accepted by others. In order to develop future studies on omoiyari in Japanese communication, this paper attempts to short bear Japanese omoiyari across disciplines.Additionally, the agent believes that it is essential to explore Japanese concepts in Japanese languages as intellectual tools for future studies in Asia. In this paper, first, the author allow review the relevant concepts in Western psychology which have been argued as omoiyari in Japan. Then, he will articulate Japanese omoiyari with its translation, definition, and major characteristics. Finally, using a diagram, he will propose four semantic areas of omoiyari, taking its communicat ion levels and contexts into consideration.Omoiyari and Its Relevant Concepts The idea of omoiyari has been argued from the standpoint of the concepts of altruism, sympathy, empathy and prosocial behavior. Although the causative developmental dealinghip among these concepts is controversial (e. g. , Eisenberg, 1986 Hoffman, 1982 Toi & Baston, 1982), each concept in itself has been regarded as one aspect of omoiyari in Japanese social psychology and communication studies. This actor that these concepts are seen as elements of omoiyari, and conversely that omoiyari can be conceptualized with a combination of these concepts.The foundation of omoiyari feelings can be covered with the concept of altruism. self-sacrifice is other-oriented and self-sacrificial (Kerbs, 1975). According to Cohen (1978), altruism refers to an act or propensity to offer something gratuitously to others when needed. Cohen indicates that there are three components of altruism (a) giving, or the desire to do so (b) empathy and (c) the absence of any motives of take from doing the altruistic behavior. 25 Intercultural Communication Studies XV 1 2006 Hara Essentially, altruism lies in the motivation to help others and to support others in their behavior.As this conceptual definition shows, altruism is the source that produces more concrete omoiyari feelings and behavior. Based on altruism, omoiyari seems to comprise both(prenominal) sympathy and empathy (e. g. , Kikuchi, 1991, 1998 Matsui, 1991). Sympathy refers to a concern for other person, agreement with and consideration for the feelings of others, or compassion (DeVito, 1986). It is generally conceived as a reaction to particular contexts such as the affliction or disappointment of others. Another view is that sympathy refers to a feeling for another person, part empathy refers to actually feeling as that person does (DeVito, 1986).Empathy in omoiyari is described in Bruneaus (1995) definition as feeling into anothers feeling s with ones suffer, vicariously, and attempting to achieve some I-thou congruence (p. 87). Empathy implies instinct of others through imagining the situation of others (Travis, 1998). Psychological aspects of altruism, empathy, and sympathy are reflected in prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior generally refers to voluntary actions that are intended to help or upbeat another individual or group of individuals (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989, p. 3).Wispe (1972) suggests that prosocial behavior refers to behaviors that can be described as sympathetic, altruistic, charitable, and so on. Furthermore, prosocial behavior benefits others without anticipating external rewards, and is done under the conditions that it is done either for its own end, or as an act of proceeds (Bar-Tal, 1976). Also, as Bar-Tal argues, prosocial behavior should not be carried out as a result of external threat, enforcement, or obligation, but should be due to an individuals freedom to decide to act in a definite manner or not.Reviewing altruism, empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behavior in human communication, on the posterior of altruism, people seem to have feelings of either empathy or sympathy at the stage of intrapersonal communication. Additionally, in the context of communication activities with others, when such feelings are seen in behavior, the behavior is regarded as prosocial behavior. As the findings in Uchida and Kitayamas (2001) survey indicate, omoiyari as sympathy had a positive relationship with wound up empathy and prosocial behavior. The combination f these concepts seems to help conceptualize aspects of omoiyari. However, since each concept cannot individually cover omoiyari in a comprehensive genius, we need a conceptual definition of omoiyari forrader applying these concepts to aspects of omoiyari. The Concept of Japanese Omoiyari In Japanese communication, it is often seen that people say show omoiyari toward others when a person does not do so. The word omoiyar i is direct toward anybody of the same generation and status, or toward younger people with regard to both in-group and out-group members.To say have omoiyari to elderly people, on the other hand, sounds arrogant, although the person is thought omoiyari in his or her mind. In such a situation, it seems appropriate to use the word itawari(caring consideration with respect) instead, stock-still though the person has the word omoiyari in his or her mind. In this section, the author attempts to propose an expedient translation of omoiyari into position which is comprehensible to both Japanese and non-Japanese people. Then, the author will define omoiyari in Japanese communication.Translation of Omoiyari into English It is impossible to translate Japanese omoiyari into English with one word or phrase 26 Intercultural Communication Studies XV 1 2006 Hara which is comprehensible to both Japanese and non-Japanese people. dismantle words such as compassion, consideration, thoughtfulness, mercy, and benevolence cover only one aspect of Japanese omoiyari. at that place seem to be two reasons for this difficulty. First, there are different views of omoiyari across cultures.For example, Yamagishi (1995) argues that for Westerners, omoiyari is not thoughtfulness to others, which is occasionally perceived to be unnecessarily compel by others depriving ones own right to choose his/her own behavior. Easterners, on the other hand, believe that thoughtfulness- base omoiyari is essential to living a group-oriented life. Secondly, as Travis (1998) points out, English words such as considerate and thoughtful, which are related to to omoiyari, do not involve the same kind of a priori judgment. This intuitive way of communication is also cultivated as intuitive sense of hearing and empathic understanding inJapanese ways of communication (Barnland, 1975). As for a deaf(p) and comprehensible translation term, Yamagishi (1995) points out that sensitivity can represent the fee lings of omoiyari that are common to Westerners and Easterners and which do not have the connotation of imposing ones thought on others. Therefore, in this paper, the author uses his own dubitable and expedient translation of omoiyari as altruistic sensitivity taking the definition of altruism, concern for the happiness and welfare of other people rather than for your own (Sinclair, 1987, p. 2) into consideration, regarding altruism as the psychological foundation to produce omoiyari- found feelings such as empathy or sympathy. Defining Omoiyari Omoi in omoiyari means considerate caring for others, while yari is the noun form of the verb yaru, which means sending something to others. Therefore, omoiyari literally means sending ones altruistic feelings to others. The difference among omoiyari, empathy, and sympathy is that omoiyari implies intuitive understanding and includes behaving in that way (Shinmura, 1991 Travis, 1998 Uchida & Kitayama, 2001).Consideration toward others is not always received, and omoiyari does not expect any reward. If any reward is expected, it is not omoiyari but business-like helping behavior. One of the definitions of omoiyari which is frequently referred to is the one by cultural anthropologist Lebra (1976), which describes omoiyari as the ability and willingness to feel what others are feeling, to vicariously experience the pleasure or pain that they are undergoing, and to help them fulfill their wisheswithout being told verbally(p. 38).Historical anthropologist Akanuma (2004) states that omoiyari is to guess others feelings and pay careful attention to their feelings, judge what has happened (or will happen) to others as what has happened (or will happen) to myself. Social psychologist Ninomiya (1991) defines omoiyari as voluntary behavior for others benefit. The common assumptions underlying all these definitions are that omoiyari is voluntary and that people put high value on sharing feelings with others. As such, intuiti ve understanding is necessary.In this study, the author will define omoiyari as an intuitive understanding of others feelings that will occasionally temper us to conceive what to do or what not to do to others. Taking the conceptual issues of omoiyari into consideration, the author will further argue major characteristics of omoiyari in the following section. Major Characteristics of Omoiyari To have a sense of omoiyari and to execute with omoiyari are regarded as ideal communication in Japanese society. For example, according to a survey by the Ministry of 27 Intercultural Communication Studies XV 1 2006 HaraEducation in Japan cited in the Yomiuri-shimbun (1994), elementary and junior high school teachers in Japan answered that they put the highest value on omoiyari in moral education. Additionally, in a survey on child-birth in Japan by the Yomiuri-shimbun (2005), 86. 7% of the parents expected their children to be a child with omoiyari. As these data show, to have omoiyari is e ssential in Japanese relational communication across contexts. In this section, the author will begin to argue major characteristics of omoiyari based on its psychological, behavioral aspects, along with the assumptions of omoiyari in previous studies.Then negative aspects of omoiyari will be briefly mentioned. Finally, four context-based semantic areas of omoiyari in human communication will be proposed. Psychological Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari has been considered altruistic feelings or emotional participation in others mindds (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989 Kikuchi, 1988), and there are three characteristics which occasionally lead to actual prosocial behavior. The first is that omoiyari does not include the concept of otherness (Akanuma, 2004). This means that omoiyari means to understand the others feelings, not taking ones self-concept into consideration (Otsuka, 1991).In this assumption, there is a Japanese interpersonal view that puts high value on oneness with others. For exampl e, Hamaguchi (1985) argues that Japanese people entail that since affectionate mutual aid is essential, people should read mutual authentic intention, and the relationship once established must be respected as valuable. Oneness with others gets reinforced through mutual omoiyari. The moment is that omiyari is neither based on pity from superiority nor on mechanistic give-and-take relations (Otsuka, 1991).The motivation of omoiyari is voluntary, and does not expect gratitude from others (Kikuchi, 1991). If a person expects any reward when they help others, that is not omoiyari. such(prenominal) a reward-expecting behavior will not be respected but rather despised, and is against the virtue of omoiyari. The third is that the value of omoiyari is evaluated based on purity of consideration of others. It goes without saying that the purer the consideration is, the more appreciated it is. However, such pure consideration of others occasionally contradicts its behavior.A commonly cited example is that physicians and family members are reluctant to directly disclose terminal diagnoses to patients because of omoiyari (Kakai 2001 Paton & Wicks, 1996). Such communication, which might be regarded as deception, will not be criticized by others because they greet the familys true feelings. Behind this type of communication, there is an unspoken assumption that true and honest feelings will be understood by others even though ones behavior contradicts his or her psychological feelings. behavioral Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari in behavior has been studied as prosocial behavior in social psychology.Kikuchi (1998) provides four common characteristics of omoiyari based on its psychological assumptions. The first is that omoiyari as prosocial behavior includes the idea of an action which is helpful for others. However, this does not necessarily mean that the prosocial behavior will be willingly accepted by others. The second is that omoiyari as true prosocial behavior is not done with the expectation of a reward from others. This is not a matter of whether a person receives or rejects a reward, but rather the premise that the person had no desire to receive a reward in the first place.The third is that omoiyari-based prosocial behavior is accompanied by a kind of cost or risk of infection of self-sacrifice. The final condition is that omoiyari as prosocial behavior 28 Intercultural Communication Studies XV 1 2006 Hara should be voluntary. This means that a person is not spring by any sense of duty to others, but is willing to behave prosocially as a choice. Japanese omoiyari behavior is uniquely seen in contrasted situations. For example, it is often stated that Japanese prefer to avoid conflict rather than to try to resolve it. In such a situation, the Japanese are inclined to use mbiguous or euphemistic expressions with their bokashi (ambiguous) logic (Nayayama, 1986), and to use honne (true intentions) and tatemae (public principles) decent (Doi, 1985) so as not to hurt others feelings. Such a lingual feature can be described as the language of omoiyari, and it is listener-oriented (Ando, 1986). Even to enemies, they do not tend to deliver a fatal blow. Such communication styles are represented in proverbs such as teki ni shio wo okuru (to show humanity even to ones enemy) or bushi no nasake (samurai-like mercy). Omoiyari, however, is not always performed desirably.In the following section, negative aspects of omoiyari will be mentioned with cases that are against its psychological and behavioral assumptions. Negative Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari does not always function as we hope. For example, overly imposing omoiyari on others might be a psychological burden or, even worse, an annoyance. This is called osekkai (meddlesome) and is the antithesis of empathetic understanding (Lebra, 1976). Especially when the elderly desire to meddle in younger peoples affairs, the younger people cannot say Please mind on your business. T his type of omoiyari could be considered osekkai. In the worst case scenario, when omoiyari is not accepted by the receiver as the source expected, the source might blame the receiver in his or her mind. This is called sakaurami (to think ill of a person who meant to be kind). At the point when the source feels sakaurami, however, his or her kindness to others is no longer regarded as omoiyari. quad Context-Based semantic flying fields of Omoiyari in Human Communication As argued above, omoiyari consists of both affectional aspects (altruism, sympathy, empathy) and a behavioral one (prosocial behavior).Using these concepts, the author will attempt to conceptualize four semantic areas of omoiyari. The following figure representing the four areas of omoiyari is based on intrapersonal communication ( subjects A and B) and interactive level (Areas C & D). See next page. The central assumption is that Area A and Area B are at the level of intrapersonal communication and cover ones c ognitive and affective aspects. Area C covers the fundamental interaction stemming from Area A, and Area D covers the interaction stemming from Area B. Area A and Area C are based on sympathy, while Area B and Area D are based on empathy.Every feeling and behavior by a communicator is based on altruism and with intuition. Area A is the situation where a person is worrying abut someones undesirable situation and praying that it will be improved. The feeling is based on altruism and sympathy. In this context, examples such as praying for the recovery of anothers health or sympathizing with the shin of others are include. In contrast, in Area B, the communicator has a feeling of encouragement in his or her mind, and the feeling is based on altruism and empathy.For example, praying for the achiever or health of others is included in this area. Area C and Area D cover peoples behavioral aspects in their relational communication and social activities. In these areas, verbal and nonverb al interaction is exchanged, and helping behavior is added when necessary. Area C, which stems from the psychological feelings of Area A, stands for prosocial behavior based on altruism and sympathy. 29 Intercultural Communication Studies XV 1 2006 Hara Communication activities such as helping behavior or volunteer activities are included in this area.Also, Area D, which stems from the psychological feelings of Area B, is based on altruism and empathy, and includes situations such as supporting other peoples victory with ones own will or participating in activities to share happiness with others. Prosocial Behavior Area C Help Area D Support Sympathy Area A Prayer cognizance Empathy Area B Encouragement Altruism Figure 1. Four Context-Based Semantic Areas of Omoiyari in Human Communication Concluding Remarks The primary purpose of this hear was to onceptualize Japanese omoiyari (altruistic sensitivity) with its psychological and behavioral characteristics, and to propose fou r types of omoiyari (prayer, encouragement, help, and support) from the viewpoint of communication. Although the author was only able to review a portion of the previous literature on omoiyari, he hopes that the essence of omoiyari conceptualized in this paper will contribute to further studies of Japanese relational communication. Based on the conceptualization in this paper, the author expects future studies to be conducted in three areas.First, various communication styles in each of the four semantic areas of omoiyari (prayer, encouragement, help, and support) should be further examined and discussed. Secondly, the initiative of combining these four areas should be further examined using empirical studies. 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